Hye‑Na Ko1 · Seoyeong Oh2,3 · Yunjung Hyun4 · Hyoun‑Tae Hwang5,6 · Kang‑Kun Lee1 · Sung‑Wook Jeen2,7, 2025, Evaluation of measurement methods for assessing vertical velocity in groundwater systems: a case study from Osongji (Osong Pond), Jeonju-si, South Korea, Environmental Earth Sciences (2025) 84:199 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-025-12206-3